Wupatki and Sunset Crater National Monuments, Arizona (page 2 of 2)

Petroglyphs at Crack-in-the-Rock ruin, Wupatki National Monument. Image NAU.PH.96.4.26.9 by Bill Belknap courtesy of Cline Library Special Collections, Northern Arizona University

Archaeologists have found evidence that the Sinaguan people, driven from the Wupatki area by the eruptions of Sunset Crater, began to move down into the pinyon-juniper forests and desert grasslands near the edges of the ashfall. Here they discovered that the addition of a layer of nutrient-rich volcanic ash to the soil allowed areas previously unsuitable for cultivation to be efficiently dry-farmed.

Dendrochronological and palynological studies indicate that the time period between 1050 and 1150 was characterized by increased rainfall and warmer than average temperatures, prolonging the growing season and increasing crop productivity. In addition, the deposited cinder acted as a natural mulch, retaining moisture and nutrients within the soil. of the arid Wupatki Basin. Over time, agricultural conditions for dry-farming in the arid Wupatki basin from which they had fled became nearly ideal. The Sinaguan people were soon followed back to their previous homelands by the Cohonina and the Kayenta Anasazi, where the different tribes lived, apparently peacefully, in close proximity for the next several centuries. The period from 1064 to 1250 was one of great cultural, technological and social success for these prehistoric peoples, particularly the Sinagua.

The Elden Phase, between 1150 and 1250, encompasses the height of Sinaguan culture and population. Occupation of the most well-known above ground pueblo ruins, including Wukoki, Wupatki and the Citadel dates to this period. Wupatki Ruin, the largest in the monument, is especially remarkable. During the Elden Phase, this technologically sophisticated pueblo was four stories high, containing up to 100 rooms. A ball court and amphitheater were built nearby. Parrot skeletons, shell jewelry, copper bells and foreign pottery found at various sites indicate that the prehistoric residents of Wupatki participated in an extensive trade system with other cultures. Another archaeological monument within the area, Walnut Canyon, east of Flagstaff, also experienced the highest density of Sinagua occupation during this time. At this site, the Sinagua primarily lived in cliff dwellings, although some pueblos and fieldhouses were also built.

Wukoki Ruins. Image NAU.PH.96.4.26.3 by Bill Belknap, courtesy of Cline Library Special Collections, Northern Arizona University

Toward the end of the 13th century, the climate shifted back to cooler temperatures, less precipitation and a shorter growing season. In addition, the characteristically strong winds in the area had blown away much of the beneficial cinder layer, in some cases even clogging the springs necessary for human existence in the area.

By A.D. 1300, the Wupatki dwellings, as well as Walnut Canyon, had been abandoned. Some of the area's inhabitants, particularly the Kayenta Anasazi, likely returned to the area across the Little Colorado River, while others may have moved south, possibly building the dwellings at Tuzigoot and Montezuma's Castle in the Verde Valley. Current theory holds that many of the Sinagua that lived in Wupatki and Walnut Canyon moved on to the Hopi Mesas and are the ancestors of the modern Hopi.

The area remained uninhabited until nomadic Navajos began living in the area near the Little Colorado River, grazing their sheep on the grasslands in the Wupatki Basin. Their tenure was ended by the U.S. army with the launch a military campaign against the Navajos in 1863, under the direction of Colonel Christopher "Kit" Carson. Their crops destroyed and livestock seized, many families fled to the Grand Canyon, while others reluctantly surrendered and were forced to make the "Long Walk" to central New Mexico, 500 miles away. Released from captivity in 1868, a number of these Navajo families returned to their homes in the Wupatki Basin, where some of their descendents still live today, within the boundaries of the monument.

Anglo settlers came to the region in the 1870's, including Mormons who established colonies along the Little Colorado. Throughout the Coconino Plateau, conflict began to arise between the Navajos and the newly arrived Anglos over water resources and grazing areas. Typically, government officials (who were often local Anglo ranchers) intimidated, over-taxed and even harmed the Navajo people and their livestock so as to drive the people and their animals off their traditional lands. Peshlakai Atsidi, a Wupatki Navajo headman, traveled to Washington, D.C. in 1902 and 1904 to present his people's case to President Theodore Roosevelt. The president was sympathetic to the Navajo people, and created a program for Indian allotments and reservation extensions, resulting in the addition of a section of the Little Colorado River and some grazing lands to the Navajo reservation.

By the 1910s, decades of vandalism and excessive looting of archaeological artifacts had taken their toll on the Wupatki and Walnut Canyon ruins. Visitors to the ruins were known to carry off basketfuls of  pottery, tools, cloth, bone needles, desiccated human and animal remains and other relics. At one time, dynamite was even used to blast away the front walls at some Walnut Canyon sites so that looters would have more light and room with which to work. In time, citizens' protests and the influence of local leaders led to the proclamation of Walnut Canyon as a national monument in 1915 and Wupatki as a national monument in 1924. Sunset Crater was made a national monument in 1930 after local outrage in response to a Hollywood film company's plans to dynamite the sides of the cinder cone to create a fantastic landslide sequence for a movie entitled "Avalanche." Today, all three monuments attract many visitors, who are able to walk through the surreal lava flows at the base of Sunset Crater, peer into the still-standing homes of our ancient predecessors, and marvel at the legacy of the prehistoric peoples who left their marks on this beautiful landscape.

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--Researched and written by Shannon Kelly

Where have all the grasslands gone? Numerous ecological studies across the Southwest have documented the decline in herbaceous vegetation (grasses and non-woody flowering plants) while forests thicken and brush invades. Documenting the changes in the Jemez Mountains of northern New Mexico, ecologist Craig Allen considers the evidence that these patterns are tied to changes in land use history, primarily livestock grazing and fire suppression.

Native Americans and the Environment. A comprehensive survey of twentieth century environmental issues facing Native Americans on the Colorado Plateau and throughout the Southwest, including discussions of agriculture, logging, mining, grazing, water rights, and tourism. Adapted from a published journal article by David Rich Lewis.

Anderson, B. A. 1993. Wupatki National Monument: Exploring into prehistory. Pp. 13-19 In: Noble, D. G., editor. Wupatki and Walnut Canyon: New Perspectives on History, Prehistory and Rock Art. Ancient City Press, Santa Fe, NM.

Pilles, P. J., Jr 1993. The Sinagua: Ancient people of the Flagstaff region. Pp. 2-11 In: Noble, D. G., editor. Wupatki and Walnut Canyon: New Perspectives on History, Prehistory and Rock Art. Ancient City Press, Santa Fe, NM.

Roberts, A. 1993. The Wupatki Navajos: An historical sketch. Pp. 28-33 In: Noble, D. G., editor. Wupatki and Walnut Canyon: New Perspectives on History, Prehistory and Rock Art. Ancient City Press, Santa Fe, NM.

Schaafsma, P. 1993. Rock art at Wupatki. Pp. 21-27 In: Nobles, D. G., editor. Wupatki and Walnut Canyon: New Perspectives on History, Prehistory and Rock Art. Ancient City Press, Santa Fe, NM.

Short, M. S. 1988. Walnut Canyon and Wupatki: A History. M.S. Thesis. Northern Arizona University, Flagstaff, AZ, 95 pp.

Thybony, S. 1987. Fire and Stone. Southwest Parks and Monuments Association, Tucson, AZ, 48 pp.